Subsistence and Economic Systems during the Transition from the Late Neolithic to the Early Copper Age on the Great Hungarian Plain, by Amy Nicodemus

Faunal analysis provides critical information about subsistence and economic systems of past societies. A zooarchaeological study of Vésztő-Bikeri, a Hungarian Early Copper Age (ECA) settlement (Figure 1), presents an ideal opportunity to illustrate the value of such research. Understanding the nature of animal use during this period is important for several reasons. First, detailed information relating to husbandry and hunting practices at the settlement level is largely lacking. A better comprehension of subsistence on a local scale will clarify the socio-economic systems of this period. Second, regional alterations in subsistence economy between the Late Neolithic and ECA can be modeled through time and the reasons underlying such transformations may be brought to light. Third, the processes that account for these changes in subsistence patterns can perhaps be used to understand similar economic shifts from Neolithic to metal working periods throughout Europe. Finally, patterns that emerge in this study will provide general insight into economic systems of tribal societies, an often-neglected level of social organization.

The Early Copper Age (ECA), ca. 4500-3900 BC, is one of the most poorly known periods in Hungarian prehistory. The available information largely derives from mortuary contexts, providing only a biased representation of archaeological material. Further, only a fraction of ECA settlements studied have been excavated with modern, systematic techniques (Parkinson 1999). The archaeological site of Vésztő-Bikeri, an ECA settlement located in the Koros River Valley in Eastern Hungary, provides an excellent opportunity for further exploration of this hazy period.

The ECA marks a period of great change in regional social systems. In addition to changes relating to settlement patterns, trade networks, and mortuary practices, the subsistence-economy also experienced a significant transformation (Parkinson 1999). Based on the limited available data, it appears that there was a shift in the relative amounts of wild and domestic fauna being exploited, specifically, an overall reduction in wild animal use (Table 1). Concurrently, there was a change in the importance of certain domestic species, with pig (Sus scrofa) and especially cattle (Bos taurus) becoming relatively more abundant (Table 2) (Bokonyi 1988). However, these assertions must remain tentative until more faunal analyses have been completed on material recovered from well-excavated settlements (Table 3).

The reasons for this alteration in the ECA subsistence base remain unclear, but it may be linked to several factors that can be tested archaeologically: 1) local domestication of wild species; 2) emphasis on secondary products; 3) increased mobility.

1) Local domestication of wild species. Bokonyi (1988) has suggested that during this period a "domestication fever" swept over the region, in which local aurochs (Bos primigenius) and wild boar (Sus scrofa), were bred with domesticated stock as an efficient means to augment herd size. This led to the reduction and/or extinction of wild populations and an increase in the relative abundance of domestic cattle and pig. Indigenous domestication of wild species will result in morphological changes, with "transitional" forms becoming apparent in the domestic herd. These transitional forms, for example, will fall within an intermediate body size range between distributions of clearly wild (large) and domestic (small) forms. Other transitional morphologies will occur in Bos horn core shape and Sus canine tooth size.

2) Emphasis on secondary products. Secondary products are resources obtained from an animal that do not result in its death. Wool, milk, transportation, and traction are all considered secondary products, in contrast to meat, a primary product. The dramatic increase in relative importance of cattle during the ECA may be attributed to a shift in emphasis from their exclusive use as a meat source to additionally being used as a source of dairy products and traction. The exact timing of the first use of secondary products in Europe is debated. Sherratt (1983) and Greenfield (1988) believe that secondary products were not exploited widely in this region until the Bronze Age (ca. third millennium BC), while other authors, such as Bokonyi (1988) and Chapman (1982) suggest an earlier Neolithic date. The change in focus from primary to secondary product exploitation causes a change in animal management strategies that will be reflected in herd profiles. For example, animals raised for meat consumption are generally killed soon after they reach full size, usually as young adults. In milk producing animals, when emphasis is shifted to secondary products, adult f emales will be kept well into adulthood, as long as milk is still produced. Males will continue to be culled in young adulthood. Even if the sex of the animal cannot be determined, the overall age structure of the herd will shift towards older animals. The general lack of age and sex profiles for domestic herds during the ECA, as well as other periods, leaves this topic open for debate (Greenfield 1988).

3) Increased mobility. Change in animal use during the ECA may be linked to broader issues of settlement patterns and economy. In the transition from the Late Neolithic to the ECA, settlements on the Hungarian Plain shift from more permanent villages nucleated around large tells (mounds created by successive village building and destruction episodes) to smaller, more ephemerally occupied settlements distributed evenly across the landscape (Parkinson 1999). This suggests the adoption of a more mobile lifestyle. Cattle, sheep, and goats are easily incorporated into a mobile pastoralist economy while pigs are not. The relative abundance of these animals will correlate to the degree of mobility.

These models can only be adequately evaluated with detailed faunal analyses that include data not only on species representation, but also on age and sex profiles. Although such studies are increasingly available for the periods preceding and following the ECA (Bokonyi 1988; Sherratt 1983), much work is needed to fill out our knowledge of the ECA itself. A faunal analysis of the Vésztő-Bikeri material will contribute to the understanding of this key transitional period.

The above issues deal primarily with regional animal use through time. However, important information also can be obtained from detailed spatial analyses at the settlement level. For example, in addition to identifying general subsistence information, the economic organization within the village can be modeled through the distribution of faunal remains. Unequal distribution of animal species between households may suggest that independent herding and hunting occurred. Similarly, if body part representation within a species is unequal between households, especially if these differences relate to the quality of meat, then this may represent differential access to animal resources. Such differences often indicate the existence of some form of social hierarchy.

In addition to the faunal material collected from the ECA settlement, animal remains were also recovered from an intrusive 10th Century conquest period grave (see also Michelle Hughes' article). The head and lower limbs of a domestic horse were placed on the body (Figure 2), along with associated riding equipment. This horse is of particular interest because it has supernumerary teeth, making it a so-called "magic horse."

Bokonyi, S.
1988 History of Domestic Mammals in Central and Eastern Europe. Akademiai Kiado, Budapest.

Chapman, J.C.
1982 'The Secondary Products Revolution' and the Limitations of the Neolithic. University of London Institute of Archaeology Bulletin 19: 107-122.

Greenfield, H. J.
1988 The Origins of Milk and Wool Production in the Old World: A Zooarchaeological Perspective from the Central Balkans. Current Anthropology 29(4):573-593.

Parkinson, W.A.
1999 The Social Organization of Early Copper Age Tribes on the Great Hungarian Plain. PhD Dissertation, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI.

Sherratt, A. G.
1983 The Secondary Exploitation of Animals in the Old World. World Archaeology 15:90-104.